DAILY OPERATIONS SCHEDULE

The various operations should be carried out in an orderly manner as per well prepared schedule.

Table: Schedule of Day-to-day Operations on Dairy Farms (About 100 cows)

Approximate time (hours)	S. No	Farm operations
03.00 - 03.30	1.	Cleaning/brushing of milch animals
03.30 - 05.00	1.	Feeding half of the daily concentrate ration just before milking.
	2.	Milking cows.
05.00 - 05.30	1.	Delivery of raw milk (in cans) to the milk pick-up van of  dairy plants and receiving previous day's empty cans.
	2.	Washing and disinfection of milking barns.
05.30 - 08.00	1.	Cleaning of milk cow sheds.
	2.	Feeding of dry/green fodder to milch stock.
	3.	Cleaning farm premises.
	4.	Isolation of sick animals.
	5.	Isolation of "in-heat" cows for artificial insemination

Note: Use milkers at the rate of one for every 12-14 cows, for all the above operations. Milkers go off duty by 8.00 a.m. and farm labour come on duty.

Approximate time (hours)	S. No	Farm operations
08.00 - 12.00	1.	Cleaning calf, maternity, dry-stock, bullock and bull sheds.
	2.	Feeding half of the daily concentrate ration to calves, pregnant cows and bulls.
	3.	Exercising and grooming of bulls.
	4.	Treating sick animals.
	5.	Breeding cows that are "in-heat".
	6.	Harvesting, chaffing and feeding of green fodder to all the stock. Mangers in all sheds should be filled with green fodder.

Note: Animals should be taken for grazing (if practiced ) between 09.00 a.m.and 02.00 p.m. in winter, and between 06.00 a.m.and 10.00 a.m. and again between 05 .00 p.m. and 07.00 p.m. in summer.

Approximate time (hours)	S. No	Farm operations
12.00 - 01.00	1.	Lunch-cum-rest period for labourers.
01.00 - 03.00	2.	Miscellaneous jobs for dairy farm stock identification; periodical vaccination; preparation of concentrate mixture; repair of farm fences, fittings and repair of equipments; rope and halter making; weekly scrubbing and white-washing of drinking water tanks; manure disposal/ conservation; hay and silage making; periodical spraying of animal houses with suitable pesticides; periodical deworming of stock; clipping hair from sides and hind-quarters of cows; grooming; toe trimming; dehorning of calves; attending to sale and purchase of livestock and their transportation; fitting and training of cows for show.
Note:  1. The dairy manager should plan the jobs well in advance in such a way that they are evenly distributed over the week. Some jobs may require longer time and the labour have to work extra time on such occasions. 2. Milkers come on duty by 2.30 hours and remain upto 5.30pm hours whereas general farm labour go off duty by 5.00 hours.
02.30 - 03.00	l.	Washing ,brushing of milch Cows by milkers.
Approximate time (hours)	S.No	Farm operations
03.00 - 04.30	l.	Feeding the other half of daily concentrate ration to milk cows just before milking.
	2.	Milking.
	3.	Cleaning calf, maternity, dry-stock and bull sheds and feeding the other half of concentrate ration to calves, pregnant cows and bulls.
04.30 - 05.00	1.	Delivery of milk (in cans) to milk pick-up vans of milk plants and collection of morning's empty cans.
	2.	Washing and disinfection of milking barns.
	3.	Feeding dry and green fodder to calves, dry-stock and bulls.
05.00-06.30	1.	Cleaning of milch cow shed.
	2.	Feeding green / dry fodder to milch stock.
	3.	Cleaning farm premises.

(Source: AC&RI, Madurai, Dr.C. Paul Princely Rajkumar ) 

Benefits of Disbudding and Dehorning
Dehorning cattle conveys advantages. Horns are the single major cause of carcass wastage due to bruising, and trim associated with bruising for carcasses from horned cattle is approximately twice that for carcasses from hornless cattle. Dehorned cattle require less feeding trough space; are easier and less dangerous to handle and transport; present a lower risk of interference from dominant animals at feeding time; pose a reduced risk of injury to udders, flanks, and eyes of other cattle; present a lower injury risk for handlers, horses, and dogs; exhibit fewer aggressive behaviors associated with individual dominance; and may incur fewer financial penalties on sale.

Disbudding
 

Disbudding involves destroying the horn-producing cells (corium) of the horn bud. Horn buds are removed without opening the frontal sinus. Chemical and hot-iron disbudding methods destroy the horn-producing cells, whereas physical methods of disbudding excise them. Several methods for disbudding cattle exist, but each method has its advantages and disadvantages. Hot-iron disbudding is commonly performed and is reliable, but is considered to be quite painful. Electrical and butane hot-iron disbudding devices are available. Excessive heat applied during hot-iron disbudding can damage underlying bone. Disbudding via cautery may create less distress than physical dehorning using a scoop because nociceptors are destroyed by heat and pain perception is consequently reduced. Caustic materials (e.g., sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide) applied to the horn bud can damage surrounding skin and/or the eyes if runoff occurs; as long as the active chemical is in contact with tissue, damage continues. Injection of calcium chloride under the horn bud results in necrosis of the horn bud, but its administration without prior sedation and/or local anesthesia is not recommended due to the level of discomfort induced by the procedure. Cryosurgical techniques are less reliable than hot-iron disbudding, require additional procedural time, and induce behavioral indicators of pain and distress. Horn buds can be physically removed, using knives, shears, or dehorning spoons, cups, or tubes. To remove the corium and prevent horn regrowth, a complete ring of hair surrounding the horn bud should also be removed.

Dehorning
Dehorning is removal of the horns after they have formed from the horn bud. Physical methods of dehorning (gouge dehorning) include the use of embryotomy wire, guillotine shears, or dehorning knives, saws, spoons, cups, or tubes. The Barnes-type scoop dehorner is commonly used for physical dehorning.
 

The presence of the corneal diverticulum’s of the frontal sinus causes surgical dehorning of adult cattle to be more invasive. Dehorning of adult cattle is associated with increased risks of sinusitis, bleeding, prolonged wound healing, and infection.

(Source:http://www.avma.org/reference/backgrounders/dehorning_cattle_bgnd.asp)

Points to remember:
Disbudding of calves and kids means removing the very early developing horn base to prevent horn growth. It’s a procedure carried out routinely for management reasons.

It is good practice to disbud all calves unless they are of a naturally polled type. Horns can cause a lot of damage to other cattle, and to stock handlers, particularly when they are yarded or penned or transported.

• Horned cattle should be penned separately for transport.
• There are advantages in disbudding goat kids too. Goats with horns can use them to good effect on other goats, and horns get hooked up in fences.
• Horn buds begin to appear around the time of birth or within a week or so of birth.
• Disbudding should be carried out while the buds are still very small, well before they become too large for a disbudding iron to fit over.
• Feel around the poll of young calves daily from a few days of age to check the horn buds, and disbud as soon as they form small hard caps.
• For most calves the best age for disbudding is from 3 to 6 weeks of age.
• Goat horns often appear earlier than calf horns and they grow faster, so check kids daily from birth.

Hot iron

• The most humane method is use of a custom-made circular hot iron to cauterize the tissue around the base of the horn.
• The procedure should take only a few seconds, but it’s painful, skill is required and applying a hot iron to the head requires firm restraint of the animal.
• Don’t be too forceful, especially with goat kids. Because of their smaller size and thinner skull they are more prone to injury from excess force or deep burns.

Don’t use caustic paste

• There are caustic chemicals on the market for disbudding.
• These are applied to the horn bud to cause chemical burns to permanently damage the horn-producing area.
• The caustic chemicals are easily rubbed onto sensitive skin (like the youngster’s mother’s udder or other calves!), and in wet conditions they can be washed down the face, causing painful burns.
• The risks generally don’t justify use of caustic pastes for disbudding.

Disbudding using a scoop

• Another method of disbudding calves is by amputation using a metal scoop.
• The disbudding scoop is a special instrument designed to gouge out the small horn bud and its base.
• There is bleeding, more chance of infection than with cautery disbudding and it is a painful procedure.

Get a vet to do it!

• For the animal’s sake, disbudding is best carried out by a veterinarian using a gas or electric cautery iron with appropriate pain control (a strong sedative, pain killer and/or anesthetic).
• The few dollars extra per calf or kid is a small price to pay for a painless and relatively stress-free procedure with a quick recovery and no complications such as infections.
• Employing a vet also means that castration, tagging and any minor surgical procedures like removal of extra teats can be carried out painlessly at the same time.

Disbud early

• It is much more humane to disbud calves than to dehorn older cattle. The greater size and strength of older animals make them much more difficult to restrain for dehorning, there is more bleeding and a greater risk of infection.

( Source:http://www.lifestyleblock.co.nz/articles/general/37_disbudding.htm )

Deworming:

• Monthly once periodical Deworming is essential. Check the cowdung often, so that we can detect the worm infection if present.Likewise periodical deworming is reduce the Worm infection at calves and induce the growth & puberty.So that we can get high yield of weight and Milk.
• Frequent cheking of weight should be there to know about the growth.Then proper exercise have to provide to make the animal Healthy.

Castration:

• It is very common for young male sheep, goats and calves to be castrated, because castrated animals are usually easier to manage from the age of puberty, i.e. from about 6 months of age.
• Don’t castrate if you don’t have to do. For example, there is no need to castrate lambs that are destined to be killed before they are 6 months old. But of course you should make sure that they are kept separate from females from about 4 months of age  just in case.
• It goes without saying - castration is very painful unless it’s done skillfully.
• The most humane option is to have the procedure carried out by a veterinarian using sedatives, pain killers and/or anesthetics; although many farmers consider that the costs of this make it impractical.
• Most castration of ruminants is carried out by the farmer owners, and it is best for the animal that the least stressful procedures be used and carried out while the animal is very young.
• For castration of lambs, kids and calves, the most humane method is application of a custom-made rubber ring to the neck of the scrotum with the appropriate applicator, preferable while the animal is 7 to 10 days of age and definitely before it is 6 weeks old.
• Surgical castration, ie cutting the scrotum and pulling the testicles out, is another option.
• Surgical castration is a painful operation unless it’s carried out by a veterinarian using pain control.
• Keep surgical instruments clean and disinfect them between animals.
• Surgical castration is more traumatic than use of rings and there is more risk of complications like infections, so it is generally not a good method for lifestyle farmers to use.
• The risk of infections like tetanus is reduced if the mother of the animal has been fully vaccinated against clostridial diseases.
• The older the animal, the more potential there is for the operation to be painful and stressful.
• It is illegal for anyone except a veterinarian to castrate animals of any species other than sheep, goats and cattle

(Source:http://www.lifestyleblock.co.nz/articles/general/36_castration.htm )

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY ANIMAL

Care and management of calf:
 

We must give good feeding and management for the calves so that they develop well and, useful for replacement stock. The feeding and care of the calf being before its birth .The dam should be dried 6-8 weeks before expected calving and should be fed well. Under fed animals will give weak and small calves.

A) Early Management:

• Immediately after birth remove any mucous or phlegm from those nose and mouth.
• Normally the cow licks the calf immediately the birth. This helps’ dry off the calf and helps in stimulating breathing and circulation. When the cows does not lick or in cold climate, rub and dry the calf with a dry cloth or gunny bag. Provide artificial respiration by compression and relaxing the chest with hands.
• The Naval should be tied about 2-5 cm away from the body and cut 1cm below the ligature and apply Tr. Iodine or boric acid or any antibiotic.
• Remove the wet bedding from the pen and keep the stall very clean and dry in condition.
• The weight of the calf should be recorded.
• Wash the cow’s udder and teats preferably with chlorine solution and dry.
• Allow the calf to suckle the first milk of the mother i.e. Colostrums.
• The calf will be standing and attempts to nurse within one hour. Otherwise help too weak calves.

B) Feeding of Calves:

• Feed colostrums i.e. the first milk of the cow for the first 3 days. The colostrums is thick and viscous. It contains higher proportions of Vitamin A Care and management of dairy animal 53 and proteins. The proteins are immune globulin which gives protection against many diseases. Colostrums contains anti trypsin which avoid digestion of immunoglobulin in the stomach and is absorbed as it is.
• Whole milk should be given after 3 days it is better to teach to, drink the milk from the pail or bucket. Feed twice a day which should be warmed to body temperature. For weak calves feed thrice a day.
• The limit of liquid milk feeding is 10 % of it’s body weight with a maximum of 5-6 liters per day and continue liquid milk feeding for 6.10 weeks.  Over feeding causes ‘Calf Scours’.
• The milk replaces can be given to replace whole milk.
• Give calf starter after one month of age.
• Provide good quality green fodder and hay from 4‘h month afterwards.
• Feeding of antibiotics to calves improves appetite, increases growth rate and prevents calf scours. E.g. aureomycin, Terramycin etc

Care & Management of Calves

MANAGEMENT  PRACTICES

• Identity the calf by tattooing in the ear at birth, and branding after one year.
• Dehorn the calf within 7-10 days after birth with red hot Iron or caustic potash stick or electrical method.
• Deworm the calf regularly to remove worms using deworming drugs. Deworm at 30 days interval.
• Fresh water should be given from 2 -3 week onwards.
• House the calves in individual calf pens for 3 months afterwards in groups. After six months males and females calves should be housed separately.
• Weigh the calves at weekly interval upto 6 months arid at monthly interval afterwards to know the growth rate.
•  Mortality in calves is more in first month due to pneumonia. Diarrhea (calf scous) and worms. House them under warm condition, clean condition to avoid above condition.
•  Extra teats beyond 4 should be removed at 1-2 months of age.
•  8-9 weeks of age, males should be castrated.
•  Keep the body clean and dry to avoid fungal infection.
•  Mineral-blocks should be provided, so that the calves lick and no changes for mineral deficiency.
•  Wean the calf from the mother and feed through pail feeding system.

Tagging for Identity

Individual Calf Pen

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HEIFER:
Better Care and Management of heifer will give high quality replacement stock to the dairy farm. The following care and Management practices are recommended for a heifer.

• Feed the heifer sufficiently to produce normal growth. During the early stage relatively more protein than energy is needed. Most heifers grow well if excellent hay is given as much they can eat. The amount of growth depends upon the quality of forage fed.
• The heifers should be provided with a dry shelter free from drafts. A loose housing system with a shelter open to one side is sufficient.
• The size rather than the age of a dairy heifer at breeding time is important. Breeding under sized animals is never profitable. They may be stunted or slow to reach maximum size. Small heifers are more likely to have difficulty in calving. Though the heifer that is bred to calve at an older age yields higher milk yield in the first lactation, the total milk produced by such a cow will be less when compared to the heifers that freshens at an
• The heifer should be growing and in good flesh at calving time. This is necessary so that she can produce milk at the most profitable level.
• Place the heifer in a separate shed about 6-8 weeks before she is due to calve.
• Feed 2 - 3 kg of concentrate daily and all the forage she eats.
• Before calving let the heifer becomes accustomed to handling and to the procedures used in the milking herd. Always handle her gently and with kindness.
• Maintenance of health among heifers is very important for proper growth. The health among the heifers is maintained by hygienic housing, water balanced feeding and taking necessary preventive steps against common diseases.
• Periodically the heifers in the herd should be checked for their proper growth and other progress. Animals lagging behind below the required standards should be removed from the herd.
• For the heifer the calving is first time and it may have difficulty in calving. So take extra care during calving.

Care & Management of Heifer

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF MILCH ANIMAL:
To get high milk during any lactation, the milch animal should be properly fed and necessary care and manage mental practices should be followed.

• Provide green succulent forage together with leguminous hay or straw to the extent of animal can consume, so that all its maintenance requirements are met with through forage only. Extra concentrate at the rate of 1 kg for every 2 to 2.5 liters of milk should be provided. Salt and mineral supplements should be given to maintain the lactation.
• Never frighten or excite the animals. Always treat them gently and with kindness.
• With proper feeding and care, a cow will come to heat with in 16 days of calving. Do not with hold service unnecessarily after the signs of heat are noticed in a cow. The shorter the interval between calving, the more efficient the animal is as a milk producer. By maintaining proper records of breeding and calving of the animals will ensure a study flow of milk through out the year.
• Individual attention to feed each animal according to its production is a must. For this purpose maintain individual production records.
• Keep up regularity of feeding. Concentrate mix is fed before or during milking, when as roughages after milking. This practice will avoid dust in the shed.
• Water should be provided to drink at will or at frequent intervals. It is more beneficial, if the animal is maintained on paddy straw as sole rough age..
• Regularity in milking is essential. Increase of milk in the udder will reduce further secretion of milk. Milking thrice is better than twice since 10 - 15 % more milk can be produced.
• Rapid, continuous, dry hand milking should be practiced without undue jerking of teats. milking should be done with whole hand, but not with thumb and index finger.
• Cows should be trained to let down milk without calf suckling. This will held to wean the calves early.
• Loose housing with shelter during hot part of the day should be provided. The animals will get maximum exercise in loose housing system.
• Grooming of the cows and washing of the buffaloes before milking help in clean milk production. Daily brushing will remove loose hair an dirt from the coat. Grooming will also keep the animal hide pliable.
• Wallowing of buffaloes or water spraying on their bodies will keeI6 the buffaloes comfortable especially in summer.
• Common ailments should be properly detected and treated.
• Common vices should be properly detected and care should be taken. Eg: Kicking, licking, suckling etc.
• Provide at least 60 - 90 days dry period between calving. If the dry period is not sufficient, the milk yield is subsequent lactation will be reduced.
• Vaccinate the cows- against important diseases and also guard against insects and pests.
• Every animal should be numbered and particulars pertaining to milk, fat %, feed taken, breeding, drying and calving dates should be recorded.
• Check for mastitis regularly.

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DRY AND PREGNANT ANIMAL
 

The good care and manage mental practices given to pregnant animal will give good calf and also high milk yield during the successive lactation.

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BULLS AND BULLOCKS

• Extra concentrate mix of 1.25 to 1.75 kg should be provided for pregnant animal as pregnancy allowance. Feed good quality of leguminous fodder. The animal should not be not - lean - not fat’ condition.
• Provide clean drinking water and protection from thermal stress.
• Do not allow them to mix with other animals that have aborted or that are suffering from or carriers of diseases like brucellosis.
• Allow moderate exercise, which helps in calving normally. Do not tire
• them by making long distances especially on uneven surfaces.
• Do not allow them to fight with other animals and take care that they are not chased by dogs and other animals.
• Avoid slippery conditions, which causes the animal to fall receiving fractures, dislocation etc.
• If accurate breeding records are available, calculate the expected date of calving. Separate it one or 2 weeks before and shifted to individual parturition pens. These pens are thoroughly cleaned and fresh bedding may be provided.
• Feed one kg extra concentrates during last 8 weeks of gestation. Feed laxative about 3 - 5 days before and after calving (Wheat bran 3 kg + 0.5 gm of Groundnut cake + 100 gm of mineral mixture of salt).
• Symptoms of delivery may be observed i.e. swelling of external genetalia, swelling of udder; usually majority of animals will deliver without any help. If there is any difficulty, provide veterinary help.
• After parturition external genital, flank should be cleaned arid protect the animal from chill and give warm wafer.
• Placenta will normally leave the cow within 2 - 4 hours after calving. It not take the help of a veterinarian.
• Take care of the animal before calving from milk fever. Give calcium supplement.
• Some times the udder will be swollen just before calving. Remove the milk partially.
• Take care, of the animal, if at all any abortion.
• Provide always free access to drinking water.

Care and management of bull 
 

The maintenance of breeding bulls in good condition and suitable for breeding is highly essential requirement for the success of breeding programme. A rising condition is better for reproduction than a falling one. Fat males may produce semen of inferior quality or they may be slow or fail at service. Breeding bull should receive plenty of exercise, will usually produce large ejaculation containing more sperms of higher activity. A breeding bull should housed separately known as “Bull Shed” with sufficient area of floor and proper covering. It is sound practice to provide cool conditions and adequate drinking water. A balanced ration should be fed containing adequate energy, proteins, minerals, and vitamins. Green fodder must be available both before and during breeding season.

Most of the bulls are ferocious and so control them properly using nose rings etc. It is of great importance that males should be , fed regularly and not too much at one time, and too little at another. For bulls two mating a day has been found to be openings. Moderate exercise should be provided to keep the breeding bull in active and non fatty conditions. Regular grooming of the breeding bull be practiced. In buffalo bulls regular shaving may be practiced.

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BULLOCK
 

Bullocks are normally used for agricultural operations and or transport purpose. Some bullocks are ferocious and so control them properly with nose rope or nose rings. The hooves of the bullocks should be provided with metal shoes to protect the hooves from wear and tear.
 

The working hours for bullocks are recommended as follows:

1. Normal Work - 6 hours of carting or 4 hours of ploughing.
2. Heavy Work - 8 hours of carting or 6 hours of ploughing

Sufficient roughages and 1-2 kg of concentrates may be provided for feeding of bullocks during break period in works, the animal may be left for free grazing. The bullocks are housed in separate sheds with sufficient space and protection from hot and cool conditions. Free access to drinking water is essential. Regular grooming of animals should be practiced.

Article Credit:http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/

Milking management

METHODS OF MILKING          

Hand milking and machine milking are the two methods of which in India .

Hand Milking 
 

Cows are milked from left side. after let down of milk, the milker starts milking teats either cross wise or fore quarters together and then hind quarters together  or teats appearing most distended milked first few streams of fore milk from each teat be let on to a strip cup. This removes any dirt from the teat canal and gives the operator a chance to detect mastitis.

Milking is done either by stripping or by full hand method. Stripping is done by firmly holding the teat between the thumb and fore finger and drawing it down the length of the teat and at the same time pressing it to cause the milk to flow down in a stream. Grasping the teat with all the five fingers and pressing it against the palm does fisting or full hand milking. The teat is compressed and relaxed alternatively in quick succession, thus the method removes milk much quicker than stripping as there is no loss of time in changing the position of the hand. Further full hand method is superior to stripping as it stimulates the natural suckling process by calf and moreover the method exerts an equal pressure on the large teats of cows and buffaloes.

Many milkers during milking tend to bend their thumb against the teat. The method is known as knuckling which should always be avoided to prevent injuries of the teat tissues. Thus milking should always be done with full hand unless the teats are too small or towards the completion of milking. The first few strips of milk from each quarter should not be mixed with the rest of the milk as the former contains highest number of bacteria.

Machine Milking 
 

Modern milking machines are capable of milking cows quickly and efficiently, without injuring the udder, if they are properly installed, maintained in excellent operating conditions, and used properly. The milking machine performs two basic functions.

• It opens the streak canal through the use of a partial vacuum, allowing the milk to flow out of the teat cistern through a line to a receiving container.
• It massages the teat, which prevents congestion of blood and lymph in the teat.

Advantage
 

The advantages of this milking machine are manifold. It is easy to operate, costs low, saves time as it milks 1.5 litre to 2 litres per minute. It is also very hygienic and energy-conserving as electricity is not required. All the milk from the udder can be removed. The machine is also easily adaptable and gives a suckling feeling to the cow and avoids pain in the udder as well as leakage of milk.

Milking machine

• A calf and the machine- similar fashion
• Tongue, Dental pallet and jaw movement of the calf by the inflation tube, pulsator and vacuum pump.
• 352mm Hg- Cattle
• 400mm Hg in Buffaloes

      
(Source: Dr. C. Paul Princely Rajkumar, AC&RI, Madurai ) 

CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION:

Milk containing dirt, dust, foreign materials high bacterial count and with off, flavour is called a contaminated milk. Milk is contaminated by various sources like Udder, Exterior of cows body, milking barn, flies, milker, utensils etc. On consumption of contaminated milk, one may get a’ number of health problems. The sources for contamination are discussed below with their relative importance.

Udder:
Unsanitary conditions of milking barns and bedding of the animal causes bacterial growth. Such bacteria may enter in to the udder through teat canal, which causes infection the udder like mastitis resulting contamination of milk. The fore milk may be discarded as it contains high bacterial count. Complete milking should be done. Incomplete milking may lead to infection of the udder.

Exterior of cow’s body:
 Bacteria present on the animal body may enter in to the milk at the time of milking. Maintenance of, clean skin, washing flank and *udder with clean damp cloth before milk reduces the contamination from this source.

Milking barns:
Milking barns with good ventilation and neat flooring avoids contamination from this sources, Dry feeds or forage should be fed after milking.

Flies and other vermin:
External parasites like flies, lice; mosquitoes etc may have their entry in to milk. So care should be taken to avoid these parasites from the barn by spraying fly spoors or by fly traps. Breeding places for these parasites like stagnant water, moist atmosphere etc may be avoided.

Milker:
Milker is directly responsible in producing good quality milk. Dirty hands and clothing of the milker may be the source of contamination. Several bacterial diseases may transmit from the milker, or handler to the consumer through milk. Persons suffering from diseases like T.B, Typhoid fever, diphthiria may not be employed for milking. Dirty habits like smoking, drinking should be avoided.

Utensils:
Utensils are the containers or equipments in which the milk is handled, processed, stored or transported. Clean sanitized, smooth copper free and dry utensils may be used for handling milk.

Milking method:

Wet hand milking and fisting causes contamination of milk. Milkers in rural moisten their fingers with milk, water or even saliva, while milking. This should be avoided. Wet hand milking should be avoided. Wet hand milking makes the teats look harsh and dry chokes, cracks and sores appear which causes contamination. Twisting causes damages to the teat tissue which leads to udder infection. So dry hand milking may be practiced to avoid contamination of milk. Major contamination of milk is caused by bacterial entry. So steps to be taken to, monitor such bacterial entry like avoiding unsanitary conditions of the barn. Milker, Utensils and avoiding unfair milking practices.

STEPS IN CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION

• The animal should be washed before milking.
• Washing of cows is best practice to minimize the bacterial entry.
• If calf is allowed for sucking, udder may be moist, cleaned with weak disinfectant solution later with fresh, clean water and wiped dry with a smooth and clean cloth.
• Hands of the milker should be clean and dry. Wet hand milking may result in high bacterial count in the milk.
• Nails of hands of the milker should be well trimmed.
• Milker should be free from all diseases.
• Dusty feed like Rice polish should not be fed to the animal at the time of milking.
• Milking barns should be well ventilated free from flies.
• Utensils used for milking should be clean, sanitized, smooth and copper free.
• Flavour producing feeds should be fed only after milking So that flavours will not appear in milk.
• The hind legs and the switch of the animal be tighted with the help of a milk man’s rope at the time of milking.
• Milk is kept in cool place to maintain the flavour and keeping quality.
• Milk should be covered with lids to avoid dust, dirt, entry hot, or cold, day light or strong artificial light, all at which tend to decrease milk quality.
• Raw milk with not exceeding 2,00,000 specific count in one ml of milk can be graded as very good raw milk

(Source: http://bieap.gov.in/DairyAnimalManagementTheory.pdf )

MILK HYGIENE 
Milk is sterile when secreted into an uninfected udder. Contamination occurs during and after milking. Exclude milk from clinical mastitis cases to avoid high bacterial counts. Use mastitis control routines at each milking to reduce the proportion of infected cows and clinical mastitis cases. Avoid contamination from dirty udders and teats by good cow housing and grazing management. Wash off visible dirt from udders and teats prior to applying the teat-cups. If udder washing is necessary, then drying afterwards is essential. Individual paper towels for both washing and drying are preferable to udder cloths. Clean and disinfect milking and ancillary equipment after use, paying particular attention to milk contact surfaces which are a main source of contamination.

The milk secreted into an uninfected cow's udder is sterile. Invariably it becomes contaminated during milking, cooling and storage, and milk is an excellent medium for bacteria, yeasts and moulds that are the common contaminants. Their rapid growth, particularly at high ambient temperatures can cause marked deterioration, spoiling the milk for liquid consumption or manufacture into dairy products. This can be avoided by adopting the simple, basic rules of clean milk production.

Udder infection 
The essential requirements are to maintain udders free from infection (eg. mastitis); manage cows so that their udders and teats are clean; milk them in such a way that minimizes bacterial contamination; store the milk in clean containers and, wherever possible, at temperatures which discourage bacterial growth until collected. Simple and low-cost husbandry practices enable milk to be produced with a bacterial count of less than 50,000 per ml. The golden rule of clean milk production is that prevention is better than cure.

Udder infection

It is impossible to prevent mastitis infection entirely but by adopting practical routines it can be kept at low levels. Most mastitis is sub clinical and although not readily detected by the stockman, it will not normally raise the bacterial count of herd milk above 50,000 per ml. Once the clinical stage is reached, the count may increase to several millions/ml and one infected quarter may result in the milk from the whole herd being unacceptable. It is important to detect clinical cases and exclude their milk from the bulk.

Other sources of contamination 
Under normal grazing conditions, cows' udders will appear clean and therefore washing and drying will be unnecessary. Otherwise, any visible dirt must be removed using clean, running water, individual paper towels or cloths in clean water to which a disinfectant has been added (eg. sodium hypochlorite at 300 ppm). If udder cloths are used, provide a clean cloth for each cow. After each milking wash and disinfect them and hang up to dry. Disposable paper towels are preferable and more effective for drying after washing. When cows are housed or graze in heavily stocked paddocks, external udder surfaces are usually grossly contaminated with bacteria even when they appear visibly clean, therefore routine udder preparation procedures should be followed. Whenever udders are washed they should be dried.

Cleaning milk production equipment 
 

It is virtually impossible with practical cleaning systems to remove all milk residues and deposits from the milk contact surfaces of milking equipment. Except in very cold, dry weather, bacteria will multiply on these surfaces during the interval between milking, so that high numbers ( 106 per m2) can be present on visually clean equipment. A proven cleaning and disinfectant routine is required so that with the minimum of effort and expense, the equipment will have low bacterial counts as well as being visually clean. The essential requirements are, to use milking equipment with smooth milk contact surfaces with minimal joints and crevices, an uncontaminated water supply, detergents to remove deposits and milk residues and a method of disinfection to kill bacteria.

Water supplies 
 

Unless an approved piped supply is available it must be assumed that water is contaminated and therefore hypochlorite must be added at the rate of 50 ppm to the cleaning water. Hard water (ie. high levels of dissolved calcium and other salts) will cause surface deposits on equipment and reduce cleaning effectiveness. In such case, it is necessary to use de-scaling acids such as Sulphuric or phosphoric, periodically.

Detergents and disinfectants 
 

Detergents increase the 'wetting' potential over the surfaces to be cleaned, displace milk deposits, dissolve milk protein, emulsify the fat and aid the removal of dirt. Detergent effectiveness is usually increased with increasing water temperature, and by using the correct concentration and time of application. Detergents contain inorganic alkalis (eg. sodium carbonate and silicates and tri-sodium phosphate), surface-active agents (or wetting agents), sequestering (water-softening) agents (eg. polyphosphates) and acids for de-scaling. Many proprietary, purpose-made detergents are usually available, but otherwise, an inexpensive mixture can be made to give a concentration in solution of 0.25% sodium carbonate (washing soda) and 0.05% polyphosphate (Calgon). Disinfectants are required to destroy the bacteria remaining and subsequently multiplying on the cleaned surfaces. The alternatives are either heat applied as hot water or chemicals. Heat penetrates deposits and crevices and kills bacteria, providing that correct temperatures are maintained during the process of disinfection. The effectiveness of chemicals is increased with temperature but even so, they do not have the same penetration potential as heat and they will not effectively disinfect milk contact surfaces which are difficult to clean. When hot water alone is used, it is best to begin the routine with water at not less than 85°C, so that a temperature of at least 77°C can be maintained for at least 2 minutes.

Dairy disinfectants are sold as concentrates and in this form are often corrosive and damaging to the skin and eyes. They should always be so labeled, handled with care and stored out of reach of children. Disinfectants should not be mixed unless specific instructions are given and disinfectant powders must be kept dry. If any concentrated detergent and/or disinfectant comes in contact with the skin or eyes the affected area should be washed immediately with copious amounts of clean water. Clean and disinfect the ancillary equipment such as coolers, foremilk cups and udder cloths effectively using hot detergent/disinfectant solution.Drain and store all the milking and ancillary equipment in a clean place such as the dairy of the milking premises.

Milking premises 
The milking premises should have a dairy or suitable place equipped with a piped hot and cold water supply, a wash trough, brushes, a work surface, storage racks and cupboards and, if necessary, a vacuum pipeline connection. In addition, it is advisable to have a dairy thermometer (0°C - 100°C), rubber gloves and goggles for use when handling chemicals.

Daily routines 
 

Daily routines for cleaning and disinfecting vary with the size and complexity of the milking installation but will include methods of removing dirt and milk from the equipment followed by disinfection. For hand milking, bucket and direct-to-can milking machines, basic manual methods of cleaning and sterilizing are adequate and effective. For pipeline milking machines in-situ (in-place) systems are necessary.

Milk can become grossly contaminated from bacteria on ancillary equipment which must also be cleaned and disinfected effectively. Coolers, either the corrugated surface or the turbine in-can, can best be cleaned and disinfected manually and stored in the dairy to drain. Refrigerated bulk milk tanks can be cleaned either manually using cold or warm detergent/disinfectant solutions, or for the larger tanks, by automatic, programmed equipment. In either case, a cold water chlorinated (50 ppm) rinse proceeds and follows the washing solution. Foremilk cups can be a potent source of bacterial contamination and need to be cleaned and disinfected after each milking. They should then be stored in the dairy to drain.

It is important with any method of cleaning that the equipment is drained as soon as possible after washing for storage between milking. Bacteria will not multiply in dry conditions but water lodged in milking equipment will, in suitable temperatures, provide conditions for massive bacterial multiplication. Equipment with poor milk contact surfaces, crevices and large number of joints, remaining wet between milking in ambient temperatures above 20°C, should receive a disinfectant rinse (50 ppm available chlorine) before milking begins.

(Source: www.fao.org )

Article Credit:http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/